BACKGROUND

The present disclosure generally relates to a process for lowering CO₂ emissions in a power plant utilizing fossil fuels for power generation.

Carbon dioxide (CO₂) emissions from power plants utilizing fossil fuels are increasingly penalized by national and international regulations, such as the Kyoto protocol, and the EU Emission Trading Scheme. With increasing cost of emitting CO₂, CO₂ emission reduction is important for economical power generation. Today's CO₂ removal technologies concentrate on CO₂ clean up of the atmospheric flue gas stream of a power plant, which results in very large, costly and energy intensive CO₂ removal units.

Gas turbine plants operate on the Brayton cycle, which generally uses a compressor to compress the inlet air upstream of a combustion chamber. Then the fuel is introduced and ignited to produce a high temperature, high-pressure gas that enters and expands through the turbine section. The turbine section powers both the generator and compressor. Combustion turbines are also able to burn a wide range of liquid and gaseous fuels from crude oil to natural gas.

There are three generally recognized ways currently employed for reducing CO₂ emissions from such power stations. The first method is to capture CO₂ after combustion with air from the exhaust gas; wherein the CO₂ produced during the combustion is removed from the exhaust gases by an absorption process, adsorption process, membranes, diaphragms, cryogenic processes or combinations thereof. This method, commonly referred to as post-combustion capture, usually focuses on reducing CO₂ emissions from the atmospheric exhaust gas of a power station. A second method includes reducing the carbon content of the fuel. In this method, the fuel is first converted into H₂ and CO₂ prior to combustion. Thus, it becomes possible to capture the carbon content of the fuel before entry into the gas turbine and the formation of CO₂ is hence avoided. A third method includes an oxy-fuel process. In this method, pure oxygen is used as the oxidant as opposed to air, thereby resulting in a flue gas consisting of carbon dioxide and water.

The main disadvantage of the post-combustion CO₂ capture processes is that the CO₂ partial pressure is very low on account of the low CO₂ concentration in the flue gas (typically 3-4% by volume for natural gas fired power plants) and therefore large and expensive devices are needed for removing the CO₂. Although the CO₂ concentration at the stack and thus the partial pressure could be increased by partial recirculation of the flue gas to the compressor of the gas turbine (in this respect see, for example, U.S. Pat. No. 5,832,712), it still remains fairly low (about 6-10% by volume). The low CO2 partial pressures and large gas volumes implicit with the form of post-combustion capture leads to very high energy costs related to CO₂ removal in addition to very bulky and costly equipment. Both these factors significantly increase the cost of electricity generation.

Accordingly, there is a need for improved processes for efficiently removing CO₂ from the power plant.

BRIEF SUMMARY

Disclosed herein are power plants that employ gas turbines and methods for lowering CO₂ emission in the power plant that utilize fossil fuels for power generation. The method of generating energy in a power plant including a gas turbine comprises generating a flue gas from a gas turbine, wherein the gas turbine comprises a compression section having at least two stages comprising a low-pressure compressor and a high-pressure compressor, a combustion section fluidly coupled to the compression section, and an expander fluidly coupled to the combustion section; recirculating the flue gas to the low-pressure compressor; diverting a portion of the recirculated flue gas to a carbon dioxide (CO₂) separator and a remaining portion to the high-pressure compressor; separating CO₂ from the diverted portion in a CO₂ separator to generate a CO₂ lean gas; and feeding the remaining portion of the recirculated flue gas to the high-pressure compressor.

A power plant configured for lowering CO₂ emissions comprises a gas turbine comprising a compression section having at least two stages, the at least two compression stages comprising a low-pressure compressor fluidly coupled to a high-pressure compressor; a combustor having a first inlet adapted for receiving compressed gas, a second inlet adapted for receiving fuel and an outlet adapted for discharging hot flue gas; and a main expander section having an inlet adapted for receiving the hot flue gas and an outlet, the outlet of the main expander fluidly coupled to the low-pressure compressor; and a CO₂ separator fluidly coupled to the low-pressure compressor for receiving a portion of the flue gas from the low-pressure compressor and provide a CO₂ lean gas that is then fed to an additional expander, wherein a remaining portion of the flue gas is provided directly to the high-pressure compressor via the low-pressure compressor being fluidly coupled to the high-pressure compressor.

In another embodiment, the power plant configured for lowering CO₂ emissions comprises a gas turbine comprising a compression section having at least two stages, the at least two compression stages comprising a low-pressure compressor fluidly coupled to a high-pressure compressor; a combustor having a first inlet for receiving compressed gas from the high-pressure compressor, a second inlet for receiving fuel and an outlet for discharging hot flue gas; and a main expander section having an inlet for receiving the discharged hot flue gas and an outlet, the outlet of the main expander fluidly coupled to the low-pressure compressor; and a CO₂ separator fluidly coupled to the low-pressure compressor for treating a portion of the flue gas and for providing a CO₂ lean gas that is then fed to a humidifier downstream from the CO₂ separator to produce a humidified and recuperated flue gas, wherein the humidified flue gas drives a second expander/compressor unit having an outlet in fluid communication with the high-pressure compressor, wherein a remaining portion of the flue gas is provided directly to the high-pressure compressor via the low-pressure compressor being fluidly coupled to the high-pressure compressor.

In another embodiment, the method of generating energy in a power plant comprises a gas turbine generating a flue gas, a combustion section fluidly coupled to a compression section, and an expander fluidly coupled to the combustion section; recirculating the flue gas to a low-pressure compressor; diverting a portion of the recirculated flue gas downstream of the compressor to a carbon dioxide (CO₂) separator and a remaining portion to the combustor; separating CO₂ from the diverted portion of flue gas in a CO₂ separator to generate a CO₂ lean gas; and feeding the remaining portion of the recirculated flue gas to the combustor. This system can be used with gas turbines comprising at least two compression stages and this embodiment can also be applied to gas turbines with a single compressor unit, which allows fluid extraction and re-injection downstream of the compressor.

The disclosure may be understood more readily by reference to the following detailed description of the various features of the disclosure and the examples included therein.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

Referring now to the figures wherein the like elements are numbered alike:

FIG. 1 shows a simplified scheme of a power plant according to one embodiment with two-stage compression and CO₂ separation from a partial flow of the extracted compressed gas and reintroduction of a compressed gas consisting of air and recirculated flue gas midway through the compression;

FIG. 2 shows a simplified scheme of a power plant according to another embodiment with two-stage compression and CO₂ separation with internal heat recovery using the CO₂ lean gas recycle product. And

FIG. 3 shows a simplified scheme of a power plant according to another embodiment with CO₂ separation from a partial flow of recirculated exhaust that is extracted downstream of the compressor.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

The present disclosure provides a process for lowering CO₂ emissions by separation of CO₂ at high-pressures and concentrations in a power plant that utilizes gas turbines for power generation. As will be discussed in greater detail below, high gas pressures are achieved by extracting recirculated CO₂-rich flue gas mid-way through the compression pathway of a gas turbine. As a result, flue gas recirculation increases the CO₂ concentration within the working fluid, leading to an additional increase in CO₂ partial pressure. As the concentration and partial pressure of CO₂ is increased, a lower energy penalty is observed to remove the CO₂. In addition, due to the CO₂ separation at pressure, the volume flows to be treated are significantly reduced compared to atmospheric processes. Consequently, the size of the separation equipment can be reduced as well as the energy required for the separation. In addition, the significant increase in CO2 partial pressure also allows for the selection of alternative CO2 capture methods, for example, adsorption and membrane separation, as described below.

In the process, only a portion (e.g., 10-70%) of the fluid extracted from the gas turbine for intercooling is passed to the CO₂ separator with the remaining portion returned to the high-pressure compressor and combustor. Thereby, the partial pressure of CO₂ in the gas turbine working fluid is raised while decreasing the volume of gas to be treated in the CO₂ separator. The cycle configuration is such that all cycle flue gases exit the system via the CO₂ separator, which provides for maximum CO₂ capture (preferably over 80%). Fresh air for combustion is compressed in a separate compressor unit and enters the gas turbine cycle at the inlet to the compressor. This avoids dilution of the recirculated CO₂-rich flue gas prior to the introduction to the separator. To minimize the work needed to compress the fresh air, the pressurized CO₂-lean gas from the CO₂ separator can be sent through a separate expander that is preferably but not necessarily linked mechanically to the air compressor. Various heat recovery strategies can be used advantageously to maximize the work generated in the expander. For example, a heat exchanger between the fresh air stream leaving the compressor and the cleaned flue gas stream entering the expander can be employed. In a beneficial alternative configuration, the heat exchange for heat recovery can also take place between the CO₂-rich flue gas fed to the separator and the CO₂-lean flue gas that leaves the separator.

In a variation of the process, high gas pressures are achieved by extracting recirculated CO₂-rich flue gas downstream of the compressor unit. As a result, flue gas recirculation increases the CO₂ concentration within the working fluid, leading to an additional increase in CO₂ partial pressure. As the concentration and partial pressure of CO₂ is increased, a lower energy penalty is observed to remove the CO₂. In addition, due to the CO₂ separation at pressure, the volume flows to be treated are significantly reduced compared to atmospheric processes. Consequently, the size of the separation equipment can be reduced as well as the energy required for the separation.

Referring now to FIG. 1, there is illustrated an exemplary power plant 10 with a gas turbine 12. The gas turbine 12 generally includes a compression section 13 that optionally includes at least two compression stages (e.g., a low-pressure compressor 14 fluidly coupled to a high-pressure compressor 16), a combustion chamber 18, and at least one expander section 21 (for example, a high-pressure expander 22 for receiving the combustion fumes and a low-pressure expander 24 downstream from the high-pressure expander 22) for supplying the energy required for driving the compressors 14, 16 and a generator 26 for generating electricity. At start up, the compression section 13 provides a compressed fluid, e.g., air or air enriched with oxygen, to the combustor 18, wherein it is then mixed with fuel 20 and combusted to generate fumes containing water and CO₂, among others. The energy in the expander exhaust can be used in a heat recovery bottoming cycle, e.g. steam Rankine cycle, to increase the efficiency, e.g., heat recovery and steam generator 28, wherein the heat is recovered in the form of steam. The gas turbine exit flow can be fully or partly recirculated. The latter can be used for transient operation (start-up, load-change, shut-down). In this case, a fraction or all of the fumes leaving the gas turbine flue gas is bled off and used for the desired transient operation. The aforementioned flue gas (as indicated by reference numeral 32) is then recirculated back to the low-pressure compressor 14 after first being cooled and any liquid water formed being removed in a condenser 30. This device may be configured advantageously to capture particles and gas contaminants. As will be discussed in greater detail below, a portion 34 of the flue gas recirculation 32 is sent compressed to the separator 36 (e.g., 10-70%), while the remaining portion 38 is recycled further on to the high-pressure compressor 16 and combustor 18 to further increase the CO₂ concentration in the working fluid.

During operation, recirculated flue gas 32 is compressed to about 2 to 20 bars in the first compressor 14. The fraction of the compressed gas that is sent to the CO₂ separator 36 can be optionally cooled by an additional heat exchanger, or trim cooler 42. The remaining fraction that is recirculated back (stream 38) is mixed with fresh air entering the cycle through the additional compressor 48. This mixture is optionally cooled down in an intercooler 51. The basic principle of intercooling includes partly compressing the gas and then cooling it before the final compression to the desired pressure is carried out (i.e., in compressor 16). In this way, the intercooler 51 reduces compression work and thus the power output of the cyclic process is increased. The CO₂ separation is effected before final compression. Optionally, trim cooler 42 cools the gas to a temperature level that is desirable for CO₂ separation. Advantageously, the existing scrolls of intercooled aeroderivatives, can be utilized to reduce required gas turbine modifications to practice the present process.

The cleaned gas 44 leaving the CO₂ separator 36 is expanded in an expander 46. Fresh air is supplied by an additional compressor 48 and mixed with the recirculated low-pressure flue gas portion 38. The mixed gas is intercooled 51 and fed to the high-pressure compressor 16. The expander and air compressor may be coupled in a compressor-expander unit with an additional motor (M). To recover waste heat and reduce power to drive the compressor 16, heat exchange in heat exchanger 50 can take place between the air stream and the cleaned gas stream entering the expander 46. In an alternative configuration, the heat exchange for heat recovery 50 can also take place between the CO₂-rich flue leaving the low-pressure compressor 14, and the CO₂-lean flue gas that leaves the separator 44.

As discussed above, the flue gas recycle fraction 34 can be used to influence the overall CO₂ separation rate. For similar reasons, the fresh airflow to the low-pressure compressor 14 can be adjusted. Firing upstream of the expander unit 46 can be utilized to avoid the motor to drive the compressor 48. To drive the unit, a steam turbine or a common shaft with the gas turbine 12 can also be used. An intercooled air compressor could also be used since it saves compression work. Gas humidification (via e.g., steam or water injection or in a non-adiabatic saturation device) upstream of one of the compressors, the combustor, throughout the expansion, or downstream of the CO₂ separation unit 36, can potentially avoid the need for an additional motor as well as can increase the power output and cycle efficiency.

In this process, the flue gas CO₂ concentration is increased in the separator compared to classical post-combustion CO₂ capture processes. Similarly, since only a portion of the recycled flue gas flows to the separator 36, and more significantly, since the flue gas is at pressure, the volume flow to the separator 36 is greatly reduced compared to atmospheric CO₂ capture applications. For example, a 50% flue gas recycle will effectively double the CO₂ concentration and compression will increase the CO₂ partial pressure by 2-20 times. Consequently, the size requirements and energy requirements of the CO₂ separator are reduced. Moreover, the reduced inlet temperature for the high-pressure compressor 16 allows for increased mass flow resulting in higher specific power. In general, the significant increase in CO₂ partial pressure also allows for the selection of alternative CO₂ capture methods, for example, adsorption and membrane separation, as described below.

FIG. 2 illustrates an alternative embodiment for a power plant 100. In this embodiment, the CO₂-lean gas is used in an internal heat recovery cycle. The CO₂-lean gas is recuperated against the main gas turbine outlet stream. Optionally, the CO₂-lean gas is humidified prior to this, using low temperature heat from the cycle to saturate the gas. This also generates an additional internal heat sink within the cycle. Potential effects of using internal heat recovery and/or humidification are a power independent air compressor and increased power output. Optionally, the steam bottoming cycle can be reduced in size or eliminated from the plant. The invention proposed includes configurations with two or more gas turbines linked by gas extraction throughout the compression. For CO₂ separation by membranes, a vacuum pump or similar can be used on the membrane permeate side to increase driving forces.

The power plant 100 includes a gas turbine 112 having a compression section 113 that includes at least two compression stages (e.g., a low-pressure compressor 114 fluidly coupled to a high-pressure compressor 116), a combustion chamber 118, and at least one expander section 121 (e.g., a high-pressure expander 122 for receiving the combustion fumes and a low-pressure expander 124 downstream from the high-pressure expander 122) for supplying the energy required for driving, among others as may be desired, the compressors 114, 116 and a generator 126. At start up, the compression section 113 provides a compressed fluid, for example, air or air enriched with oxygen, to the combustor 118, wherein it is then mixed with fuel 120 and combusted to generate flue gas containing water and CO₂, among others. The flue gas is fed to a recuperator 150 and economizer 152, wherein the heat is recovered. The recuperator 150 captures waste heat in the turbine exhaust stream to preheat the CO₂ lean exhaust before entering expander 148 whereas the economizer captures low-grade heat to drive the optional humidification of the CO₂-lean gas. As before, the flue gas from the expander section 121 can be fully or partly recirculated. When partly recirculated, a fraction of the flue gas leaving the gas turbine flue gas is bled off and used for transient operation (start-up, load-change, shut-down) after first being cooled and any liquid water formed being removed in a condenser 30. This device may be configured advantageously to capture particles and gas contaminants. The thus treated flue gas (as indicated by reference numeral 132) is then recirculated back to the low-pressure compressor 114. As will be discussed in greater detail below, a portion 134 of the flue gas recirculation is sent at increased CO₂ partial pressure to the CO₂ separator, 136, (e.g., 10-70%) while the remaining portion 138 is recycled further on to the high-pressure compressor 116 and combustor 118.

During operation, recirculated flue gas 132 is compressed to about 2 to 20 bars in the first compressor 114. The fraction of the compressed gas that is sent to the CO₂ separator 136 can be optionally cooled by an additional heat exchanger, or trim cooler 142. The remaining fraction that is recirculated back (stream 138) is mixed with fresh air entering the cycle through the additional compressor section 157 (which is optionally an intercooled additional compressor unit consisting of two or more compressors, 158 and 156, and an intercooler (162)). The mixture of recirculated flue gas and fresh air is optionally cooled down in an intercooler 164 and recycled back to the high-pressure compressor 116 and combustor 118. The cleaned CO₂ lean gas 144 exiting the separator 136 is optionally humidified in a humidification tower 154 to provide a humidified gas 155 and expanded in an expander 148. By introducing the humidified CO₂ lean gas 155 directly to the expander 148, a motor for operation of compression section 157 that is coupled to the expander 148 can be avoided or minimized. Moreover, the expander 148 can be used to drive a generator 160, if desired. It should be apparent that low temperature waste heat from e.g., 164, 152, 162, can be used to drive the humidification of the CO₂-lean gas. This low-grade energy is delivered to the humidification tower in the form of hot pressurized water, which humidifies the CO₂ lean gas in a counter-current fashion while the water itself is being cooled. The use of this low-grade energy in this manner increases the efficiency of the power plant 100 by generating an internal heat sink (i.e., the cold water exiting from the tower).

The compression section optionally includes a low-pressure compressor 158 coupled to a high-pressure compressor 156. Fresh air (or air enriched with oxygen) is supplied to low-pressure compressor 158 and further compressed within the high-pressure compressor 156. Optionally, the gas can be cooled in an intercooler disposed between the compressors. The gas is then mixed with the recirculated low-pressure flue gas portion 138, which is then fed to an intercooler 164 prior to entering the high-pressure compressor 116. The enthalpy in the hot water generated in the optional intercooler can be used to saturate the gas passing therethrough or the CO2-lean gas prior to expander 48, 148.

Advantageously, by using the CO₂ lean gas as described in the above internal heat recovery process, power output is increased and the compressor is power independent. Optionally, the conventional steam bottoming cycle can be eliminated or reduced in size with the couples unit 157, 148 providing a net power output.

The disclosed methods have been modeled in GateCycle. The simulations confirm the main effect of flue gas recycling back to combustor. When recycling 50% of the flue gas back to the high-pressure compressor, 116, the driving forces for separation of CO₂ at the CO₂ separator 136 are doubled and the volume flow is halved, thus reducing the associated capital and energy demands. A further reduction of volume flows and increases in CO₂ partial pressures at the CO₂ separation unit, and thereby reductions in costs and energy demands, is due to the CO₂ separation unit operating at pressure. Moreover, the cycle configuration is such that in normal operation all cycle flue gases exit the system via the CO₂ separator. This ensures maximum CO₂ capture (preferably over 80%). Still further, fresh air for combustion is compressed separately to the main gas turbine unit and enters the gas turbine cycle at the inlet to the high-pressure compressor. This avoids dilution of the recirculated CO₂-rich exhaust gas prior to introduction to the separator. To minimize the work needed to compress the fresh air, the pressurized CO₂-lean gas from the removal unit is sent through a separate expander that is mechanically linked to the air compressor. Various heat recovery strategies can be used advantageously to maximize the work generated in the expander. For example, heat exchange between the fresh air stream leaving the compressor and the cleaned flue gas stream entering the expander.

In all the concepts described, the CO₂ separation processes could comprise, for example, a chemical absorption process, which uses an amine-based solvent or the like. In a conventional manner, the working medium would be brought into contact with the solvent in an absorption tower, where CO₂ is transformed from the gas to the liquid phase and a CO₂ lean gas emerges. Alternatively, a diaphragm (membrane) can act as contact element. This has the advantage that the two flows are kept separate and transfer of the solvent into the gas flow is prevented and thus the turbomachines are protected. In addition, the overall size, weight and costs can be reduced. The solvent issuing from the absorber or the diaphragm unit and enriched with CO₂ is regenerated in a separation column and recirculated in order to be used again. Other examples for a CO₂ separation process are physical absorption, combinations of chemical and physical absorption, adsorption on solid bodies, and combinations thereof.

It should be noted that if the air (40, 140, or entering 48, 158) is enriched with oxygen, the volume of air introduced for the combustion process is reduced and the buildup of CO₂ is improved. Hence, an even lower flow of gas is passed through the separator.

A considerable advantage of the high-pressure separation process disclosed herein over, for example, the oxy-fuel concepts consists in the fact that the existing turbomachines can be used with only slight changes. This is possible because the properties of the working medium are very similar to those in existing gas turbines.

Humidification prior to 16/116 or 48/148 can be realized either by water injection, steam injection or by the use of a humidification tower. All three methods compensate for the loss of the CO₂ from the working medium by the addition of water vapor. Hence, the volume flow through the respective expanders are boosted and more power is generated. Further, when using existing turbomachinery, the predetermined design conditions at the inlet of the expander can thereby be reestablished and the performance of the process could be improved.

FIG. 3 illustrates an alternative embodiment for a power plant 200 comprising a gas turbine 202. The gas turbine 202 generally includes a compressor 204, a combustion chamber 206, and at least one expander section 208 for supplying the energy required for driving compressor 204 and a generator 210 to generate electricity. In one embodiment, a compressed flow 212 from compressor 204 is split into two portions, a first portion 214 that is directed into combustion chamber 206 and a second portion 216 that is directed into a secondary combustor 218. In the secondary combustor 218, the second portion 216 of the compressed flow 212 is combusted with an additional fuel 220, for example, natural gas. This is done in order to reduce the oxygen content of the second portion 216 and to maximize the CO₂ concentration.

A CO₂ rich stream 222 is produced in secondary combustor 218 and is directed to a CO₂ capture system 224 where the CO₂ 226 is separated from the CO₂ rich stream 222 and a CO₂ lean stream 228 is directed to a secondary turbine system 230 for generating additional power. Optionally, the system can include a number of heat exchange interfaces, for example, the CO₂ rich stream 222 and the CO₂ lean stream 228 can be directed through a heat exchanger 232 to facilitate heat exchange therebetween. Additionally, a heat exchanger 234 can be directly incorporated into secondary combustor 218 to provide additional heat exchange between the combustion gases and the CO₂ lean stream 228 and to provide cooling to the secondary combustor materials.

The secondary turbine system 230 comprises a secondary turbine 234 and a secondary compressor 236. The CO₂ lean stream 228 is directed to secondary turbine 234 and is expanded to generate additional power through a motor-generator 238. An exhaust gas 240 is generated after expansion through the secondary turbine 234 and can be released to the ambient, typically, after passing through a heat recovery unit 242 to recover any residual heat. Because, the exhaust gas 240 has been stripped of a significant portion of CO₂ in CO₂ capture system 224, the exhaust 240 is substantially free of CO₂ and can be released to the atmosphere in an environmentally sound fashion.

Air 244 is directed through secondary compressor 236, which compressor 236 is typically powered by turbine 234, and generates a compressed air stream 246. The compressed air stream 246 is directed to the combustion chamber 206 for combustion with a primary fuel 248 and the first portion 214 of compressed flow 212 and generates a hot flue gas 250. The hot flue gas 250 is expanded in the expander section 208 to generated electricity via generator 210 and an expanded exhaust 252. The expanded exhaust 252 is directed to a heat recovery steam generator 254 to generate steam 256 and a cooled expanded exhaust gas 258. The steam 256 is directed to a steam turbine 260 for expansion and generation of additional electricity. The cooled expanded exhaust gas 258 is directed to the compressor 204. The expanded exhaust gas 258 is typically cooled down to an appropriate temperature to enable water removal and then is directed to compressor 204 where the exhaust gas is compressed.

In one embodiment of the invention, the combustion chamber 206 comprises a primary combustion zone 262 and a secondary combustion zone 264. In one embodiment, the compressed air 246 and the primary fuel 248 are directed to the primary combustion zone 262 and are combusted and the first portion 214 of the compressed flow 212 is directed to the secondary combustion zone 264.

In one embodiment, a catalytic combustion device (not shown) may be used to remove oxygen from the CO2 rich stream 222 prior to entry into the CO2 capture system 224. Some separation methods will benefit from a reduced partial pressure of oxygen, for example, many solvents used for CO2 capture degrade at a speed that is roughly proportional to the partial pressure of oxygen. Accordingly, removal of the oxygen will benefit the overall system effectiveness. While this configuration is demonstrated in this embodiment, it is equally applicable to all embodiments of the instant invention.

This written description uses examples to disclose the invention, including the best mode, and also to enable any person skilled in the art to make and use the invention. The patentable scope of the invention is defined by the claims, and may include other examples that occur to those skilled in the art. Such other examples are intended to be within the scope of the claims if they have structural elements that do not differ from the literal language of the claims, or if they include equivalent structural elements with insubstantial differences from the literal languages of the claims.