EARTH-BORING ROTARY DRILL BITS AND METHODS OF MANUFACTURING EARTH-BORING ROTARY DRILL BITS HAVING PARTICLE-MATRIX COMPOSITE BIT BODIES |
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申请号 | EP06837257.2 | 申请日 | 2006-11-10 | 公开(公告)号 | EP1957223B1 | 公开(公告)日 | 2013-02-20 |
申请人 | BAKER HUGHES INCORPORATED; | 发明人 | SMITH, Redd H.; STEVENS, John H.; DUGGAN, James L.; LYONS, Nicholas J.; EASON, Jimmy W.; GLADNEY, Jared D.; OXFORD, James A.; CHREST, Benjamin J.; | ||||
摘要 | |||||||
权利要求 | |||||||
说明书全文 | This application claims priority to United States patent application Serial No. The present invention generally relates to earth-boring rotary drill bits, and to methods of manufacturing such earth-boring rotary drill bits. More particularly, the present invention generally relates to earth-boring rotary drill bits that include a bit body substantially formed of a particle-matrix composite material, and to methods of manufacturing such earth-boring drill bits. Rotary drill bits are commonly used for drilling bore holes or wells in earth formations. Rotary drill bits include two primary configurations. One configuration is the roller cone bit, which typically includes three roller cones mounted on support legs that extend from a bit body. Each roller cone is configured to spin or rotate on a support leg. Cutting teeth typically are provided on the outer surfaces of each roller cone for cutting rock and other earth formations. The cutting teeth often are coated with an abrasive super hard ("hardfacing") material. Such materials often include tungsten carbide particles dispersed throughout a metal alloy matrix material. Alternatively, receptacles are provided on the outer surfaces of each roller cone into which hardmetal inserts are secured to form the cutting elements. The roller cone drill bit may be placed in a bore hole such that the roller cones are adjacent the earth formation to be drilled. As the drill bit is rotated, the roller cones roll across the surface of the formation, the cutting teeth crushing the underlying formation. A second configuration of a rotary drill bit is the fixed-cutter bit (often referred to as a "drag" bit), which typically includes a plurality of cutting elements secured to a face region of a bit body. Generally, the cutting elements of a fixed-cutter type drill bit have either a disk shape or a substantially cylindrical shape. A hard, super-abrasive material, such as mutually bonded particles of polycrystalline diamond, may be provided on a substantially circular end surface of each cutting element to provide a cutting surface. Such cutting elements are often referred to as "polycrystalline diamond compact" (PDC) cutters. Typically, the cutting elements are fabricated separately from the bit body and secured within pockets formed in the outer surface of the bit body. A bonding material such as an adhesive or, more typically, a braze alloy may be used to secured the cutting elements to the bit body. The fixed-cutter drill bit may be placed in a bore hole such that the cutting elements are adjacent the earth formation to be drilled. As the drill bit is rotated, the cutting elements scrape across and shear away the surface of the underlying formation. The bit body of a rotary drill bit typically is secured to a hardened steel shank having an American Petroleum Institute (API) threaded pin for attaching the drill bit to a drill string. The drill string includes tubular pipe and equipment segments coupled end to end between the drill bit and other drilling equipment at the surface. Equipment such as a rotary table or top drive may be used for rotating the drill string and the drill bit within the bore hole. Alternatively, the shank of the drill bit may be coupled directly to the drive shaft of a down-hole motor, which then may be used to rotate the drill bit. The bit body of a rotary drill bit may be formed from steel. Alternatively, the bit body may be formed from a particle-matrix composite material. Such materials include hard particles randomly dispersed throughout a matrix material (often referred to as a "binder" material.) Such bit bodies typically are formed by embedding a steel blank in a carbide particulate material volume, such as particles of tungsten carbide, and infiltrating the particulate carbide material with a matrix material, such as a copper alloy. Drill bits that have a bit body formed from such a particle-matrix composite material may exhibit increased erosion and wear resistance, but lower strength and toughness relative to drill bits having steel bit bodies. A conventional earth-boring rotary drill bit 10 that has a bit body including a particle-matrix composite material is illustrated in The bit body 12 includes wings or blades 30, which are separated by junk slots 32. Internal fluid passageways 42 extend between the face 18 of the bit body 12 and a longitudinal bore 40, which extends through the steel shank 20 and partially through the bit body 12. Nozzle inserts (not shown) may be provided at face 18 of the bit body 12 within the internal fluid passageways 42. A plurality of PDC cutters 34 are provided on the face 18 of the bit body 12. The PDC cutters 34 may be provided along the blades 30 within pockets 36 formed in the face 18 of the bit body 12, and may be supported from behind by buttresses 38, which may be integrally formed with the crown 14 of the bit body 12. The steel blank 16 shown in During drilling operations, the drill bit 10 is positioned at the bottom of a well bore hole and rotated while drilling fluid is pumped to the face 18 of the bit body 12 through the longitudinal bore 40 and the internal fluid passageways 42. As the PDC cutters 34 shear or scrape away the underlying earth formation, the formation cuttings and detritus are mixed with and suspended within the drilling fluid, which passes through the junk slots 32 and the annular space between the well bore hole and the drill string to the surface of the earth formation. Conventionally, bit bodies that include a particle-matrix composite material, such as the previously described bit body 12, have been fabricated by infiltrating hard particles with molten matrix material in graphite molds. The cavities of the graphite molds are conventionally machined with a five-axis machine tool. Fine features are then added to the cavity of the graphite mold by hand-held tools. Additional clay work also may be required to obtain the desired configuration of some features of the bit body. Where necessary, preform elements or displacements (which may comprise ceramic components, graphite components, or resin-coated sand compact components) may be positioned within the mold and used to define the internal passages 42, cutting element pockets 36, junk slots 32, and other external topographic features of the bit body 12. The cavity of the graphite mold is filled with hard particulate carbide material (such as tungsten carbide, titanium carbide, tantalum carbide, etc.). The preformed steel blank 16 may then be positioned in the mold at the appropriate location and orientation. The steel blank 16 typically is at least partially submerged in the particulate carbide material within the mold. The mold then may be vibrated or the particles otherwise packed to decrease the amount of space between adjacent particles of the particulate carbide material. A matrix material, such as a copper-based alloy, may be melted, and the particulate carbide material may be infiltrated with the molten matrix material. The mold and bit body 12 are allowed to cool to solidify the matrix material. The steel blank 16 is bonded to the particle-matrix composite material, which forms the crown 14, upon cooling of the bit body 12 and solidification of the matrix material. Once the bit body 12 has cooled, the bit body 12 is removed from the mold and any displacements are removed from the bit body 12. Destruction of the graphite mold typically is required to remove the bit body 12. As previously described, destruction of the graphite mold typically is required to remove the bit body 12. After the bit body 12 has been removed from the mold, the bit body 12 may be secured to the steel shank 20. As the particle-matrix composite material used to form the crown 14 is relatively hard and not easily machined, the steel blank 16 is used to secure the bit body to the shank. Threads may be machined on an exposed surface of the steel blank 16 to provide the threaded connection 22 between the bit body 12 and the steel shank 20. The steel shank 20 may be screwed onto the bit body 12, and the weld 24 then may be provided along the interface between the bit body 12 and the steel shank 20. The PDC cutters 34 may be bonded to the face 18 of the bit body 12 after the bit body 12 has been cast by, for example, brazing, mechanical affixation, or adhesive affixation. Alternatively, the PDC cutters 34 may be provided within the mold and bonded to the face 18 of the bit body 12 during infiltration or furnacing of the bit body if thermally stable synthetic diamonds, or natural diamonds, are employed. The molds used to cast bit bodies are difficult to machine due to their size, shape, and material composition. Furthermore, manual operations using hand-held tools are often required to form a mold and to form certain features in the bit body after removing the bit body from the mold, which further complicates the reproducibility of bit bodies. These facts, together with the fact that only one bit body can be cast using a single mold, complicate reproduction of multiple bit bodies having consistent dimensions. As a result, there may be variations in cutter placement in or on the face of the bit bodies. Due to these variations, the shape, strength, and ultimately the performance during drilling of each bit body may vary, which makes it difficult to ascertain the life expectancy of a given drill bit As a result, the drill bits on a drill string are typically replaced more often than is desirable, in order to prevent unexpected drill bit failures, which results in additional costs. As may be readily appreciated from the foregoing description, the process of fabricating a bit body that includes a particle-matrix composite material is a somewhat costly, complex multi-step labor intensive process requiring separate fabrication of an intermediate product (the mold) before the end product (the bit body) can be cast. Moreover, the blanks, molds, and any preforms employed must be individually designed and fabricated. While bit bodies that include particle-matrix composite materials may offer significant advantages over prior art steel body bits in terms of abrasion and erosion-resistance, the lower strength and toughness of such bit bodies prohibit their use in certain applications. It is further described that using selective placement or selective bonding of powdered materials with differing physical characteristics reduces the volume of relatively expensive tungsten or tungsten carbide required for the bit body, as such would be used only where necessary, and may reduce the size of the blank required or eliminate the need for a conventional blank altogether due to the employment of an inherently tough and ductile matrix material throughout the majority of the bit body volume. Only a short "stub" blank may thus be required for welding the threaded shank to the bit body, or the relatively low or even ambient temperatures employed in the bit fabrication process of the present invention may permit the matrix to be secured (sintered, fused or mechanically secured) to a combination blank/shank during the matrix formation process without adversely affecting the physical characteristics of the blank/shank. Yet a third type of powder may be deposited in a controlled manner to build a simulated "blank" within the bit body if such is desired. The object of the invention is to provide a method for forming an earth-boring rotary drill bit having a bit body of high strength and toughness that is easily attached to a shank that is configured for attachment to a drill string. This object is obtained by a method comprising the features of claim 1. Preferred ways of carrying out the method of the present invention are claimed in claims 2 to 11. The features, advantages, and alternative aspects of the present invention will be apparent to those skilled in the art from a consideration of the following detailed description considered in combination with the accompanying drawings. While the specification concludes with claims particularly pointing out and distinctly claiming that which is regarded as the present invention, the advantages of this invention may be more readily ascertained from the following description of the invention when read in conjunction with the accompanying drawings in which:
The illustrations presented herein are not meant to be actual views of any particular material, apparatus, system, or method, but are merely idealized representations which are employed to describe the present invention. Additionally, elements common between figures may retain the same numerical designation. The term "green" as used herein means unsintered. The term "green bit body" as used herein means an unsintered structure comprising a plurality of discrete particles held together by a binder material, the structure having a size and shape allowing the formation of a bit body suitable for use in an earth-boring drill bit from the structure by subsequent manufacturing processes including, but not limited to, machining and densification. The term "brown" as used herein means partially sintered. The term "brown bit body" as used herein means a partially sintered structure comprising a plurality of particles, at least some of which have partially grown together to provide at least partial bonding between adjacent particles, the structure having a size and shape allowing the formation of a bit body suitable for use in an earth-boring drill bit from the structure by subsequent manufacturing processes including, but not limited to, machining and further densification. Brown bit bodies may be formed by, for example, partially sintering a green bit body. The term "sintering" as used herein means densification of a particulate component involving removal of at least a portion of the pores between the starting particles (accompanied by shrinkage) combined with coalescence and bonding between adjacent particles. As used herein, the term "[metal]-based alloy" (where [metal] is any metal) means commercially pure [metal] in addition to metal alloys wherein the weight percentage of [metal] in the alloy is greater than the weight percentage of any other component of the alloy. As used herein, the term "material composition" means the chemical composition and microstructure of a material. In other words, materials having the same chemical composition but a different microstructure are considered to have different material compositions. As used herein, the term "tungsten carbide" means any material composition that contains chemical compounds of tungsten and carbon, such as, for example, WC, W2C, and combinations ofWC and W2C. Tungsten carbide includes, for example, cast tungsten carbide, sintered tungsten carbide, and macrocrystalline tungsten carbide. An earth-boring rotary drill bit 50 that embodies teachings of the present invention is shown in The bit body 52 includes blades 30, which are separated by junk slots 32. Internal fluid passageways 42 extend between the face 58 of the bit body 52 and a longitudinal bore 40, which extends through the shank 70 and partially through the bit body 52. The internal fluid passageways 42 may have a substantially linear, piece-wise linear, or curved configuration. Nozzle inserts (not shown) or fluid ports may be provided at face 58 of the bit body 52 within the internal fluid passageways 42. The nozzle inserts may be integrally formed with the bit body 52 and may include circular or noncircular cross sections at the openings at the face 58 of the bit body 52. The drill bit 50 may include a plurality of PDC cutters 34 disposed on the face 58 of the bit body 52. The PDC cutters 34 may be provided along blades 30 within pockets 36 formed in the face 58 of the bit body 52, and may be supported from behind by buttresses 38, which may be integrally formed with the bit body 52. Alternatively, the drill bit 50 may include a plurality of cutters formed from an abrasive, wear-resistant material such as, for example, cemented tungsten carbide. Furthermore, the cutters maybe integrally formed with the bit body 52, as will be discussed in further detail below. The particle-matrix composite material of the bit body 52 may include a plurality of hard particles randomly dispersed throughout a matrix material. The hard particles may comprise diamond or ceramic materials such as carbides, nitrides, oxides, and borides (including boron carbide (B4C)). More specifically, the hard particles may comprise carbides and borides made from elements such as W, Ti, Mo, Nb, V, Hf, Ta, Cr, Zr, Al, and Si. By way of example and not limitation, materials that may be used to form hard particles include tungsten carbide, titanium carbide (TiC), tantalum carbide (TaC), titanium diboride (TiB2), chromium carbides, titanium nitride (TiN), aluminium oxide (Al2O3), aluminium nitride (AlN), and silicon carbide (SiC). Furthermore, combinations of different hard particles may be used to tailor the physical properties and characteristics of the particle-matrix composite material. The hard particles may be formed using techniques known to those of ordinary skill in the art. Most suitable materials for hard particles are commercially available and the formation of the remainder is within the ability of one of ordinary skill in the art. The matrix material of the particle-matrix composite material may include, for example, cobalt-based, iron-based, nickel-based, iron and nickel-based, cobalt and nickel-based, iron and cobalt-based, aluminum-based, copper-based, magnesium-based, and titanium-based alloys. The matrix material may also be selected from commercially pure elements such as cobalt, aluminum, copper, magnesium, titanium, iron, and nickel. By way of example and not limitation, the matrix material may include carbon steel, alloy steel, stainless steel, tool steel, Hadfield manganese steel, nickel or cobalt superalloy material, and low thermal expansion iron or nickel based alloys such as INWAR®. As used herein, the term "superalloy" refers to an iron, nickel, and cobalt based-alloys having at least 12% chromium by weight. Additional exemplary alloys that may be used as matrix material include austenitic steels, nickel based superalloys such as INCONEL® 625M or Rene 95, and INVAR® type alloys having a coefficient of thermal expansion that closely matches that of the hard particles used in the particular particle-matrix composite material. More closely matching the coefficient of thermal expansion of matrix material with that of the hard particles offers advantages such as reducing problems associated with residual stresses and thermal fatigue. Another exemplary matrix material is a Hadfield austenitic manganese steel (Fe with approximately 12% Mn by weight and 1.1% C by weight). In one embodiment of the present invention, the particle-matrix composite material may include a plurality of-400 ASTM (American Society for Testing and Materials) mesh tungsten carbide particles. For example, the tungsten carbide particles may be substantially composed ofWC. As used herein, the phrase "-400 ASTM mesh particles" means particles that pass through an ASTM No. 400 mesh screen as defined in ASTM specification E11-04 entitled Standard Specification for Wire Cloth and Sieves for Testing Purposes. Such tungsten carbide particles may have a diameter of less than about 38 microns. The matrix material may include a metal alloy comprising about 50% cobalt by weight and about 50% nickel by weight. The tungsten carbide particles may comprise between about 60% and about 95% by weight of the particle-matrix composite material, and the matrix material may comprise between about 5% and about 40% by weight of the particle-matrix composite material. More particularly, the tungsten carbide particles may comprise between about 70% and about 80% by weight of the particle-matrix composite material, and the matrix material may comprise between about 20% and about 30% by weight of the particle-matrix composite material. In another embodiment of the present invention, the particle-matrix composite material may include a plurality of-635 ASTM mesh tungsten carbide particles. As used herein, the phrase "-635 ASTM mesh particles" means particles that pass through an ASTM No. 635 mesh screen as defined in ASTM specification E1 1-04 entitled Standard Specification for Wire Cloth and Sieves for Testing Purposes. Such tungsten carbide particles may have a diameter of less than about 20 microns. The matrix material may include a cobalt-based metal alloy comprising substantially commercially pure cobalt. For example, the matrix material may include greater than about 98% cobalt by weight. The tungsten carbide particles may comprise between about 60% and about 95% by weight of the particle-matrix composite material, and the matrix material may comprise between about 5% and about 40% by weight of the particle-matrix composite material. With continued reference to As the particle-matrix composite material of the bit body 52 may be relatively wear-resistant and abrasive, machining of the bit body 52 may be difficult or impractical. As a result, conventional methods for attaching the shank 70 to the bit body 52, such as by machining cooperating positioning threads on mating surfaces of the bit body 52 and the shank 70, with subsequent formation of a weld 24, may not be feasible. As an alternative to conventional methods for attaching the shank 70 to the bit body 52, the bit body 52 may be attached and secured to the shank 70 by brazing or soldering an interface between abutting surfaces of the bit body 52 and the shank 70. By way of example and not limitation, a brazing alloy 74 may be provided at an interface between a surface 60 of the bit body 52 and a surface 72 of the shank 70. Furthermore, the bit body 52 and the shank 70 may be sized and configured to provide a predetermined standoff between the surface 60 and the surface 72, in which the brazing alloy 74 may be provided. Alternatively, the shank 70 may be attached to the bit body 52 using a weld 24 provided between the bit body 52 and the shank 70. The weld 24 may extend around the drill bit 50 on an exterior surface thereof along an interface between the bit body 52 and the shank 70. In alternative embodiments, the bit body 52 and the shank 70 may be sized and configured to provide a press fit or a shrink fit between the surface 60 and the surface 72 to attach the shank 70 to the bit body 52. Furthermore, interfering non-planar surface features may be formed on the surface 60 of the bit body 52 and the surface 72 of the shank 70. For example, threads or longitudinally extending splines, rods, or keys (not shown) may be provided in or on the surface 60 of the bit body 52 and the surface 72 of the shank 70 to prevent rotation of the bit body 52 relative to the shank 70. Referring to The container 80 may include a fluid-tight deformable member 82. For example, the fluid-tight deformable member 82 maybe a substantially cylindrical bag comprising a deformable polymer material. The container 80 may further include a sealing plate 84, which may be substantially rigid. The deformable member 82 may be formed from, for example, an elastomer such as rubber, neoprene, silicone, or polyurethane. The deformable member 82 may be filled with the powder mixture 78 and vibrated to provide a uniform distribution of the powder mixture 78 within the deformable member 82. At least one displacement or insert 86 may be provided within the deformable member 82 for defining features of the bit body 52 such as, for example, the longitudinal bore 40 ( The container 80 (with the powder mixture 78 and any desired inserts 86 contained therein) may be provided within a pressure chamber 90. A removable cover 91 may be used to provide access to the interior of the pressure chamber 90. A fluid (which may be substantially incompressible) such as, for example, water, oil, or gas (such as, for example, air or nitrogen) is pumped into the pressure chamber 90 through an opening 92 at high pressures using a pump (not shown). The high pressure of the fluid causes the walls of the deformable member 82 to deform. The fluid pressure may be transmitted substantially uniformly to the powder mixture 78. The pressure within the pressure chamber 90 during isostatic pressing may be greater than about 35 megapascals (about 5,000 pounds per square inch). More particularly, the pressure within the pressure chamber 90 during isostatic pressing may be greater than about 138 megapascals (20,000 pounds per square inch). In alternative methods, a vacuum may be provided within the container 80 and a pressure greater than about 0.1 megapascals (about 15 pounds per square inch) may be applied to the exterior surfaces of the container (by, for example, the atmosphere) to compact the powder mixture 78. Isostatic pressing of the powder mixture 78 may form a green powder component or green bit body 94 shown in In an alternative method of pressing the powder mixture 78 to form the green bit body 94 shown in The green bit body 94 shown in The shaped green bit body 98 shown in The brown bit body 102 may be substantially machinable due to the remaining porosity therein. Certain structural features may be machined in the brown bit body 102 using conventional machining techniques including, for example, turning techniques, milling techniques, and drilling techniques. Hand held tools also may be used to manually form or shape features in or on the brown bit body 102. Tools that include superhard coatings or inserts may be used to facilitate machining of the brown bit body 102. Additionally, material coatings may be applied to surfaces of the brown bit body 102 that are to be machined to reduce chipping of the brown bit body 102. Such coatings may include a fixative or other polymer material. By way of example and not limitation, internal fluid passageways 42, cutter pockets 36, and buttresses 3 8 ( The shaped brown bit body 106 shown in During all sintering and partial sintering processes, refractory structures or displacements (not shown) may be used to support at least portions of the bit body during the sintering process to maintain desired shapes and dimensions during the densification process. Such displacements may be used, for example, to maintain consistency in the size and geometry of the cutter pockets 36 and the internal fluid passageways 42 during the sintering process. Such refractory structures may be formed from, for example, graphite, silica, or alumina. The use of alumina displacements instead of graphite displacements may be desirable as alumina may be relatively less reactive than graphite, thereby minimizing atomic diffusion during sintering. Additionally, coatings such as alumina, boron nitride, aluminum nitride, or other commercially available materials may be applied to the refractory structures to prevent carbon or other atoms in the refractory structures from diffusing into the bit body during densification. In alternative methods, the green bit body 94 shown in The sintering processes described herein may include conventional sintering in a vacuum furnace, sintering in a vacuum furnace followed by a conventional hot isostatic pressing process, and sintering immediately followed by isostatic pressing at temperatures near the sintering temperature (often referred to as sinter-HIP). Furthermore, the sintering processes described herein may include subliquidus phase sintering. In other words, the sintering processes may be conducted at temperatures proximate to but below the liquidus line of the phase diagram for the matrix material. For example, the sintering processes described herein may be conducted using a number of different methods known to one of ordinary skill in the art such as the Rapid Omnidirectional Compaction (ROC) process, the Ceracon™ process, hot isostatic pressing (HIP), or adaptations of such processes. Broadly, and by way of example only, sintering a green powder compact using the ROC process involves presintering the green powder compact at a relatively low temperature to only a sufficient degree to develop sufficient strength to permit handling of the powder compact. The resulting brown structure is wrapped in a material such as graphite foil to seal the brown structure. The wrapped brown structure is placed in a container, which is filled with particles of a ceramic, polymer, or glass material having a substantially lower melting point than that of the matrix material in the brown structure. The container is heated to the desired sintering temperature, which is above the melting temperature of the particles of a ceramic, polymer, or glass material, but below the liduidus temperature of the matrix material in the brown structure. The heated container with the molten ceramic, polymer, or glass material (and the brown structure immersed therein) is placed in a mechanical or hydraulic press, such as a forging press, that is used to apply pressure to the molten ceramic or polymer material. Isostatic pressures within the molten ceramic, polymer, or glass material facilitate consolidation and sintering of the brown structure at the elevated temperatures within the container. The molten ceramic, polymer, or glass material acts to transmit the pressure and heat to the brown structure. In this manner, the molten ceramic, polymer, or glass acts as a pressure transmission medium through which pressure is applied to the structure during sintering. Subsequent to the release of pressure and cooling, the sintered structure is then removed from the ceramic, polymer, or glass material. A more detailed explanation of the ROC process and suitable equipment for the practice thereof is provided by The Ceracon™ process, which is similar to the aforementioned ROC process, may also be adapted for use in the present invention to fully sinter brown structures to a final density. In the Ceracon™ process, the brown structure is coated with a ceramic coating such as alumina, zirconium oxide, or chrome oxide. Other similar, hard, generally inert, protective, removable coatings may also be used. The coated brown structure is fully consolidated by transmitting at least substantially isostatic pressure to the coated brown structure using ceramic particles instead of a fluid media as in the ROC process. A more detailed explanation of the Ceracon™ process is provided by Furthermore, in embodiments of the invention in which tungsten carbide is used in a particle-matrix composite bit body, the sintering processes described herein also may include a carbon control cycle tailored to improve the stoichiometry of the tungsten carbide material. By way of example and not limitation, if the tungsten carbide material includes WC, the sintering processes described herein may include subjecting the tungsten carbide material to a gaseous mixture including hydrogen and methane at elevated temperatures. For example, the tungsten carbide material may be subjected to a flow of gases including hydrogen and methane at a temperature of about 1,000°C. As previously discussed, several different methods may be used to attach the shank 70 to the bit body 52. In the embodiment shown in As previously mentioned, a shrink fit may be provided between the shank 70 and the bit body 52 in alternative embodiments of the invention. By way of example and not limitation, the shank 70 may be heated to cause thermal expansion of the shank while the bit body 52 is cooled to cause thermal contraction of the bit body 52. The shank 70 then may be pressed onto the bit body 52 and the temperatures of the shank 70 and the bit body 52 may be allowed to equilibrate. As the temperatures of the shank 70 and the bit body 52 equilibrate, the surface 72 of the shank 70 may engage or abut against the surface 60 of the bit body 52, thereby at least partly securing the bit body 52 to the shank 70 and preventing separation of the bit body 52 from the shank 70. Alternatively, a friction weld may be provided between the bit body 52 and the shank 70. Mating surfaces may be provided on the shank 70 and the bit body 52. A machine may be used to press the shank 70 against the bit body 52 while rotating the bit body 52 relative to the shank 70. Heat generated by friction between the shank 70 and the bit body 52 may at least partially melt the material at the mating surfaces of the shank 70 and the bit body 52. The relative rotation may be stopped and the bit body 52 and the shank 70 may be allowed to cool while maintaining axial compression between the bit body 52 and the shank 70, providing a friction welded interface between the mating surfaces of the shank 70 and the bit body 52. Commercially available adhesives such as, for example, epoxy materials (including inter-penetrating network (IPN) epoxies), polyester materials, cyanacrylate materials, polyurethane materials, and polyimide materials may also be used to secure the shank 70 to the bit body 52. As previously described, a weld 24 may be provided between the bit body 52 and the shank 70 that extends around the drill bit 50 on an exterior surface thereof along an interface between the bit body 52 and the shank 70. A shielded metal arc welding (SMAW) process, a gas metal arc welding (GMAW) process, a plasma transferred arc (PTA) welding process, a submerged arc welding process, an electron beam welding process, or a laser beam welding process may be used to weld the interface between the bit body 52 and the shank 70. Furthermore, the interface between the bit body 52 and the shank 70 may be soldered or brazed using processes known in the art to further secure the bit body 52 to the shank 70. Referring again to Cold spray techniques provide another method by which hardfacing materials may be applied to surfaces of the bit body 52 and/or the shank 70. In cold spray techniques, energy stored in high pressure compressed gas is used to propel fine powder particles at very high velocities (500 to 1500 m/s) at the substrate. Compressed gas is fed through a heating unit to a gun where the gas exits through a specially designed nozzle at very high velocity. Compressed gas is also fed via a high pressure powder feeder to introduce the powder material into the high velocity gas jet. The powder particles are moderately heated and accelerated to a high velocity towards the substrate. On impact the particles deform and bond to form a coating of hardfacing material. Yet another technique for applying hardfacing material to selected surfaces of the bit body 52 and/or the shank 70 involves applying a first cloth or fabric comprising a carbide material to selected surfaces of the bit body 52 and/or the shank 70 using a low temperature adhesive, applying a second layer of cloth or fabric containing brazing or matrix material over the fabric of carbide material, and heating the resulting structure in a furnace to a temperature above the melting point of the matrix material. The molten matrix material is wicked into the tungsten carbide cloth, metallurgically bonding the tungsten carbide cloth to the bit body 52 and/or the shank 70 and forming the hardfacing material. Alternatively, a single cloth that includes a carbide material and a brazing or matrix material may be used to apply hardfacing material to selected surfaces of the bit body 52 and/or the shank 70. Such cloths and fabrics are commercially available from, for example, Conforma Clad, Inc. of New Albany, Indiana. Conformable sheets of hardfacing material that include diamond may also be applied to selected surfaces of the bit body 52 and/or the shank 70. Another earth-boring rotary drill bit 150 that embodies teachings of the present invention is shown in The bit body 152 includes blades 30, which are separated by junk slots 32. Internal fluid passageways 42 extend between the face 158 of the bit body 152 and a longitudinal bore 40, which at least partially extends through the unitary structure 151. Nozzle inserts (not shown) may be provided at face 158 of the bit body 152 within the internal fluid passageways 42. The drill bit 150 may include a plurality of PDC cutters 34 disposed on the face 58 of the bit body 52. The PDC cutters 34 may be provided along blades 30 within pockets 36 formed in the face 158 of the bit body 152, and may be supported from behind by buttresses 38, which may be integrally formed with the bit body 152. Alternatively, the drill bit 150 may include a plurality of cutters each comprising an abrasive, wear-resistant material such as, for example, cemented tungsten carbide. The unitary structure 151 may include a plurality of regions. Each region may comprise a particle-matrix composite material having a material composition that differs from other regions of the plurality of regions. For example, the bit body 152 may include a particle-matrix composite material having a first material composition, and the threaded pin 154 may include a particle-matrix composite material having a second material composition that is different from the first material composition. In this configuration, the material composition of the bit body 152 may exhibit a physical property that differs from a physical property exhibited by the material composition of the threaded pin 154. For example, the first material composition may exhibit higher erosion and wear resistance relative to the second material composition, and the second material composition may exhibit higher fracture toughness relative to the first material composition. In one embodiment of the present invention, the particle-matrix composite material of the bit body 152 (the first composition) may include a plurality of -635 ASTM mesh tungsten carbide particles. More particularly, the particle-matrix composite material of the bit body 152 (the first composition) may include a plurality of tungsten carbide particles having an average diameter in a range from about 0.5 microns to about 20 microns. The matrix material of the first composition may include a cobalt-based metal alloy comprising greater than about 98% cobalt by weight. The tungsten carbide particles may comprise between about 75% and about 85% by weight of the first composition of particle-matrix composite material, and the matrix material may comprise between about 15% and about 25% by weight of the first composition of particle-matrix composite material. The particle-matrix composite material of the threaded pin 154 (the second composition) may include a plurality of-635 ASTM mesh tungsten carbide particles. More particularly, the particle-matrix composite material of the threaded pin 154 may include a plurality of tungsten carbide particles having an average diameter in a range from about 0.5 microns to about 20 microns. The matrix material of the second composition may include a cobalt-based metal alloy comprising greater than about 98% cobalt by weight. The tungsten carbide particles may comprise between about 65% and about 70% by weight of the second composition of particle-matrix composite material, and the matrix material may comprise between about 30% and about 35% by weight of the second composition of particle-matrix composite material. The drill bit 150 shown in One method that may be used to form the drill bit 150 shown in Referring to The container 164 may include a fluid-tight deformable member 166 and a sealing plate 168. For example, the fluid-tight deformable member 166 may be a substantially cylindrical bag comprising a deformable polymer material. The deformable member 166 may be formed from, for example, a deformable polymer material. The deformable member 166 may be filled with the powder mixture 162. The deformable member 166 and the powder mixture 162 may be vibrated to provide a uniform distribution of the powder mixture 162 within the deformable member 166. At least one displacement or insert 170 may be provided within the deformable member 166 for defining features such as, for example, the longitudinal bore 40 ( The container 164 (with the powder mixture 162 and any desired inserts 170 contained therein) may be provided within a pressure chamber 90. A removable cover 91 may be used to provide access to the interior of the pressure chamber 90. A fluid (which may be substantially incompressible) such as, for example, water, oil, or gas (such as, for example, air or nitrogen) is pumped into the pressure chamber 90 through an opening 92 using a pump (not shown). The high pressure of the fluid causes the walls of the deformable member 166 to deform. The pressure may be transmitted substantially uniformly to the powder mixture 162. The pressure within the pressure chamber during isostatic pressing may be greater than about 35 megapascals (about 5,000 pounds per square inch). More particularly, the pressure within the pressure chamber during isostatic pressing may be greater than about 13 8 megapascals (20,000 pounds per square inch). In alternative methods, a vacuum may be provided within the container 164 and a pressure greater than about 0.1 megapascals (about 15 pounds per square inch) may be applied to the exterior surfaces of the container 164 (by, for example, the atmosphere) to compact the powder mixture 162. Isostatic pressing of the powder mixture 162 may form a green powder component or green bit body 174 shown in In an alternative method of pressing the powder mixture 162 to form the green bit body 174 shown in The green bit body 174 shown in By way of example and not limitation, blades 30, junk slots 32 ( The shaped green bit body 178 shown in The brown bit body 182 may be substantially machinable due to the remaining porosity therein. Certain structural features may be machined in the brown bit body 182 using conventional machining techniques including, for example, turning techniques, milling techniques, and drilling techniques. Hand held tools also may be used to manually form or shape features in or on the brown bit body 182. Furthermore, cutting tools that include superhard coatings or inserts may be used to facilitate machining of the brown bit body 182. Additionally, coatings may be applied to the brown bit body 182 prior to machining to reduce chipping of the brown bit body 182. Such coatings may include a fixative or other polymer material. By way of example and not limitation, internal fluid passageways 42, cutter pockets 36, and buttresses 3 8 ( Referring to The container 192 may include a fluid-tight deformable member 194 and a sealing plate 196. The deformable member 194 may be formed from, for example, an elastomer such as rubber, neoprene, silicone, or polyurethane. The deformable member 194 may be filled with the powder mixture 190. The deformable member 194 and the powder mixture 190 may be vibrated to provide a uniform distribution of the powder mixture 190 within the deformable member 194. At least one displacement or insert 200 may be provided within the deformable member 194 for defining features such as, for example, the longitudinal bore 40 ( The container 192 (with the powder mixture 190 and any desired inserts 200 contained therein) may be provided within a pressure chamber 90. A removable cover 91 may be used to provide access to the interior of the pressure chamber 90. A fluid (which may be substantially incompressible) such as, for example, water, oil, or gas (such as, for example, air or nitrogen) is pumped into the pressure chamber 90 through an opening 92 using a pump (not shown). The high pressure of the fluid causes the walls of the deformable member 194 to deform. The pressure may be transmitted substantially uniformly to the powder mixture 190. The pressure within the pressure chamber 90 during isostatic pressing may be greater than about 35 megapascals (about 5,000 pounds per square inch). More particularly, the pressure within the pressure chamber 90 during isostatic pressing may be greater than about 138 megapascals (20,000 pounds per square inch). In alternative methods, a vacuum may be provided within the container 192 and a pressure greater than about 0.1 megapascals (about 15 pounds per square inch) may be applied to the exterior surfaces of the container 192 (by, for example, the atmosphere) to compact the powder mixture 190. Isostatic pressing of the powder mixture 190 may form a green powder component or green pin 204 shown in In an alternative method of pressing the powder mixture 190 to form the green pin 204 shown in The green pin 204 shown in By way of example and not limitation, a tapered surface 206 may be formed on an exterior surface of the green pin 204 to form a shaped green pin 208 shown in The shaped green pin 208 shown in The brown pin 212 may be substantially machinable due to the remaining porosity therein. Certain structural features may be machined in the brown pin 212 using conventional machining techniques including, for example, turning techniques, milling techniques, and drilling techniques. Hand held tools also may be used to manually form or shape features in or on the brown pin 212. Furthermore, cutting tools that include superhard coatings or inserts may be used to facilitate machining of the brown pin 212. Additionally, coatings may be applied to the brown pin 212 prior to machining to reduce chipping of the brown bit body 182. Such coatings may include a fixative or other polymer material. By way of example and not limitation, threads 214 may be formed in the brown pin 212 to form a shaped brown threaded pin 216 shown in The shaped brown threaded pin 216 shown in In alternative methods, the shaped green pin 208 shown in The sintering processes described above may include any of the subliquidus phase sintering processes previously described herein. For example, the sintering processes described above may be conducted using the Rapid Omnidirectional Compaction (ROC) process, the Ceracon™ process, hot isostatic pressing (HIP), or adaptations of such processes. Another method that may be used to form the drill bit 150 shown in Referring to The first powder mixture 226 may include a plurality of hard particles and a plurality of particles comprising a matrix material. The hard particles and the matrix material may be substantially identical to those previously discussed in relation to the drill bit 50 shown in Optionally, each of the first powder mixture 226 and the second powder mixture 228 may further include additives commonly used when pressing powder mixtures such as, for example, binders for providing lubrication during pressing and for providing structural strength to the pressed powder component, plasticizers for making the binder more pliable, and lubricants or compaction aids for reducing inter-particle friction. The container 232 may include a fluid-tight deformable member 234 and a sealing plate 236. For example, the fluid-tight deformable member 234 may be a substantially cylindrical bag comprising a deformable polymer material. The deformable member 234 may be formed from, for example, an elastomer such as rubber, neoprene, silicone, or polyurethane. The deformable member 232 may be filled with the first powder mixture 226 and the second powder mixture 228. The deformable member 226 and the powder mixtures 226, 228 may be vibrated to provide a uniform distribution of the powder mixtures within the deformable member 234. At least one displacement or insert 240 may be provided within the deformable member 234 for defining features such as, for example, the longitudinal bore 40 ( The container 232 (with the first powder mixture 226, the second powder mixture 228, and any desired inserts 240 contained therein) may be provided within a pressure chamber 90. A removable cover 91 may be used to provide access to the interior of the pressure chamber 90. A fluid (which may be substantially incompressible) such as, for example, water, oil, or gas (such as, for example, air or nitrogen) is pumped into the pressure chamber 90 through an opening 92 using a pump (not shown). The high pressure of the fluid causes the walls of the deformable member 234 to deform. The pressure may be transmitted substantially uniformly to the first powder mixture 226 and the second powder mixture 228. The pressure within the pressure chamber 90 during isostatic pressing may be greater than about 35 megapascals (about 5,000 pounds per square inch). More particularly, the pressure within the pressure chamber 90 during isostatic pressing may be greater than about 138 megapascals (20,000 pounds per square inch). In alternative methods, a vacuum may be provided within the container 232 and a pressure greater than about 0.1 megapascals (about 15 pounds per square inch) may be applied to the exterior surfaces of the container 232 (by, for example, the atmosphere) to compact the first powder mixture 226 and the second powder mixture 228. Isostatic pressing of the first powder mixture 226 together with the second powder mixture 228 may form a green powder component or green unitary structure 244 shown in In an alternative method of pressing the powder mixtures 226, 228 to form the green unitary structure 244 shown in The green unitary structure 244 shown in By way of example and not limitation, blades 30, junk slots 32 ( The shaped green unitary structure 248 shown in The brown unitary structure 252 may be substantially machinable due to the remaining porosity therein. Certain structural features may be machined in the brown unitary structure 252 using conventional machining techniques including, for example, turning techniques, milling techniques, and drilling techniques. Hand held tools also may be used to manually form or shape features in or on the brown unitary structure 252. Furthermore, cutting tools that include superhard coatings or inserts may be used to facilitate machining of the brown unitary structure 252. Additionally, coatings may be applied to the brown unitary structure 252 prior to machining to reduce chipping of the brown unitary structure 252. Such coatings may include a fixative or other polymer material. By way of example and not limitation, cutter pockets 36, buttresses 38 ( The shaped brown unitary structure 256 shown in Furthermore, any of the previously described sintering methods may be used to sinter the shaped brown unitary structure 256 shown in In the previously described method, features of the unitary structure 151 were formed by shaping or machining both the green unitary structure 244 shown in An earth-boring rotary drill bit 270 that embodies teachings of the present invention is shown in The bit body 274 may include blades 30, which are separated by junk slots 32. Internal fluid passageways 42 may extend between the face 282 of the bit body 274 and a longitudinal bore 40, which extends through the shank 278, the extension 276, and partially through the bit body 274. Nozzle inserts (not shown) may be provided at face 282 of the bit body 274 within the internal fluid passageways 42. The drill bit 270 may include a plurality of PDC cutters 34 disposed on the face 282 of the bit body 274. The PDC cutters 34 may be provided along blades 30 within pockets 36 formed in the face 282 of the bit body 270, and may be supported from behind by buttresses 38, which may be integrally formed with the bit body 274. Alternatively, the drill bit 270 may include a plurality of cutters each comprising a wear-resistant abrasive material, such as, for example, a particle-matrix composite material. The particle-matrix composite material of the cutters may have a different composition from the particle-matrix composite material of the bit body 274. Furthermore, such cutters may be integrally formed with the bit body 274. The particle-matrix composite material of the bit body 274 may include a plurality of hard particles randomly dispersed throughout a matrix material. The hard particles and the matrix material may be substantially identical to those previously discussed in relation to the drill bit 50 shown in In one embodiment of the present invention, the particle-matrix composite material of the bit body 274 may include a plurality of tungsten carbide particles having an average diameter in a range from about 0.5 microns to about 20 microns. The matrix material may include a cobalt and nickel-based metal alloy. The tungsten carbide particles may comprise between about 60% and about 95% by weight of the particle-matrix composite material, and the matrix material may comprise between about 5% and about 40% by weight of the particle-matrix composite material. The bit body 274 is substantially similar to the bit body 52 shown in In conventional drill bits that have a bit body that includes a particle-matrix composite material, a preformed steel blank is used to attach the bit body to a steel shank. The preformed steel blank is attached to the bit body when particulate carbide material is infiltrated by molten matrix material within a mold and the matrix material is allowed to cool and solidify, as previously discussed. Threads or other features for attaching the steel blank to the steel shank can then be machined in surfaces of the steel blank. As the bit body 274 is not formed using conventional infiltration techniques, a preformed steel blank may not be integrally formed with the bit body 274 in the conventional method. As an alternative method for attaching the shank 278 to the bit body 274, an extension 276 may be attached to the bit body 274 after formation of the bit body 274. The extension 276 may be attached and secured to the bit body 274 by, for example, brazing or soldering an interface between a surface 275 of the bit body 274 and a surface 277 of the extension 276. For example, the interface between the surface 275 of the bit body 274 and the surface 277 of the extension 276 may be brazed using a furnace brazing process or a torch brazing process. The bit body 274 and the extension 276 may be sized and configured to provide a predetermined standoff between the surface 275 and the surface 277, in which a brazing alloy 284 may be provided. The brazing alloy 284 may include, for example, a silver-based or a nickel-based alloy. Additional cooperating non-planar surface features (not shown) may be formed on or in the surface 275 of the bit body 274 and an abutting surface 277 of the extension 276 such as, for example, threads or generally longitudinally oriented keys, rods, or splines, which may prevent rotation of the bit body 274 relative to the extension 276. In alternative embodiments, a press fit or a shrink fit may be used to attach the extension 276 to the bit body 274. To provide a shrink fit between the extension 276 and the bit body 274, a temperature differential may be provided between the extension 276 and the bit body 274. By way of example and not limitation, the extension 276 may be heated to cause thermal expansion of the extension 276 while the bit body 274 may be cooled to cause thermal contraction of the bit body 274. The extension 276 then may be pressed onto the bit body 274 and the temperatures of the extension 276 and the bit body 274 may be allowed to equilibrate. As the temperatures of the extension 276 and the bit body 274 equilibrate, the surface 277 of the extension 276 may engage or abut against the surface 275 of the bit body 274, thereby at least partly securing the bit body 274 to the extension 276 and preventing separation of the bit body 274 from the extension 276. Alternatively, a friction weld may be provided between the bit body 274 and the extension 276. Abutting surfaces may be provided on the extension 276 and the bit body 274. A machine may be used to press the extension 276 against the bit body 274 while rotating the bit body 274 relative to the extension 276. Heat generated by friction between the extension 276 and the bit body 274 may at least partially melt the material at the mating surfaces of the extension 276 and the bit body 274. The relative rotation may be stopped and the bit body 274 and the extension 276 may be allowed to cool while maintaining axial compression between the bit body 274 and the extension 276, providing a friction welded interface between the mating surfaces of the extension 276 and the bit body 274. Additionally, a weld 24 may be provided between the bit body 274 and the extension 276 that extends around the drill bit 270 on an exterior surface thereof along an interface between the bit body 274 and the extension 276. A shielded metal arc welding (SMAW) process, a gas metal arc welding (GMAW) process, a plasma transferred arc (PTA) welding process, a submerged arc welding process, an electron beam welding process, or a laser beam welding process may be used to weld the interface between the bit body 274 and the extension 276. After the extension 276 has been attached and secured to the bit body 274, the shank 278 may be attached to the extension 276. By way of example and not limitation, positioning threads 300 maybe machined in abutting surfaces of the steel shank 278 and the extension 276. The steel shank 278 then may be threaded onto the extension 276. A weld 24 then may be provided between the steel shank 278 and the extension 276 that extends around the drill bit 270 on an exterior surface thereof along an interface between the steel shank 278 and the extension 276. Furthermore, solder material or brazing material may be provided between abutting surfaces of the steel shank 278 and the extension 276 to further secure the steel shank 278 to the extension 276. By attaching an extension 276 to the bit body 274, removal and replacement of the steel shank 278 may be facilitated relative to removal and replacement of shanks that are directly attached to a bit body substantially formed from and composed of a particle-matrix composite material, such as, for example, the shank 70 of the drill bit 50 shown in While teachings of the present invention are described herein in relation to embodiments of earth-boring rotary drill bits that include fixed cutters, other types of earth-boring drilling tools such as, for example, core bits, eccentric bits, bicenter bits, reamers, mills, drag bits, roller cone bits, and other such structures known in the art may embody teachings of the present invention and may be formed by methods that embody teachings of the present invention. |